Indirect Strategies for General Management of Learning

METACOGNITIVE STRATEGIES

"Metacognitive" means beyond, beside, or with the cognitive. There­fore, metacognitive strategies are actions which go beyond purely cognitive devices, and which provide a way for learners to coordinate their own learning process. Metacognitive strategies include three strategy sets: Cen­tering Your Learning, Arranging and Planning Your Learning, and Eval­uating Your Learning. Ten strategies form these three groups, the acronym for which is CAPE (see Figure 4.2). Remember these strategy sets by saying, "Metacognitive strategies make language learners more CAPE-able."

Metacognitive strategies are essential for successful language learning. Language learners are often overwhelmed by too much "newness"—un­familiar vocabulary, confusing rules, different writing systems, seemingly inexplicable social customs, and (in enlightened language classes) nontra­ditional instructional approaches. With all this novelty, many learners lose their focus, which can only be regained by the conscious use of metacog­nitive strategies such as paying attention and overviewingllinking with already familiar material.

Other metacognitive strategies, like organizing, setting goals and ob­jectives, considering the purpose, and planning for a language task, help learners to arrange and plan their language learning in an efficient, effective way. The metacognitive strategy of seeking practice opportunities is es­pecially important. Learners who are seriously interested in learning a new language must take responsibility to seek as many practice opportunities as possible, usually outside of the classroom. Even in a second language situation, ripe with opportunities for practice, learners must actively search for, and take advantage of, these possibilities.

Sometimes language learners have problems in realistically monitoring their errors. Students may become traumatized when they make errors, thus failing to realize that they will undoubtedly make them and should therefore try to learn from them. Students may also underrate or overrate their proficiency. Confusion about overall progress is made worse by the academic grading system, which generally rewards discrete-point rule-learning rather than communicative competence. These problems—un­realistic monitoring of errors and inadequate evaluation of progress—can be ameliorated by using the metacognitive strategies of self-monitoring and self-evaluating [1].

Though metacognitive strategies are extremely important, research shows that learners use these strategies sporadically and without much sense of their importance. In several studies of second and foreign language learning [2], students used metacognitive strategies less often than cog­nitive strategies and were limited in their range of metacognitive strategies, with planning strategies most frequently employed and with little self-evaluation or self-monitoring. Likewise, university and military foreign language students in other studies [3] reported using certain metacognitive strategies, such as being prepared and using time well, but they failed to employ other crucial metacognitive strategies, like accurately evaluating their progress or seeking practice opportunities. Obviously, learners need to learn much more about the essential metacognitive strategies. Detailed definitions of these strategies are given below.

Centering Your Learning

This set of three strategies helps learners to converge their attention and energies on certain language tasks, activities, skills, or materials. Use of these strategies provides a focus for language learning.

1.      Overviewing and Linking with Already Known Material

Overviewing comprehensively a key concept, principle, or set of materials in an upcoming language activity and associating it with what is already known. This strategy can be accomplished in many different ways, but it is often helpful to follow three steps: learning why the activity is being done, building the needed vocabulary, and making the associations [4].

2.      Paying Attention

Deciding in advance to pay attention in general to a language learning task and to ignore distractors (by directed attention), and/or to pay attention to specific aspects of the language or to situational details (by selective atten­tion).

3.      Delaying Speech Production to Focus on Listening

Deciding in advance to delay speech production in the new language either totally or partially, until listening comprehension skills are better de­veloped. Some language theorists encourage a "silent period" of delayed speech as part of the curriculum, but there is debate as to whether all students require this [5].

Arranging and Planning Your Learning

This set contains six strategies, all of which help learners to organize and plan so as to get the most out of language learning. These strategies

touch many areas: finding out about language learning, organizing the schedule and the environment, setting goals and objectives, considering task purposes, planning for tasks, and seeking chances to practice the language.

1.      Finding Out About Language Learning

Making efforts to find out how language learning works by reading books arid talking with other people, and then using this information to help improve one's own language learning.

2.      Organizing

Understanding and using conditions related to optimal learning of the new language; organizing one's schedule, physical environment (e.g., space, temperature, sound, lighting), and language learning notebook.

3.      Setting Goals and Objectives

Setting aims for language learning, including long-term goals (such as being able to use the language for informal conversation by the end of the year) or short-term objectives (such as finishing reading a short story by Friday).

4.      Identifying the Purpose of a Language Task

Deciding the purpose of a particular language task involving listening, reading, speaking, or writing. For example, listening to the radio to get the latest news on the stock exchange, reading a play for enjoyment, speaking to the cashier to buy a train ticket, writing a letter to persuade a friend not to do something rash. (This is sometimes known as Purposeful Listening/Speaking/Reading/Writing.)

5.      Planning for a Language Task

Planning for the language elements and functions necessary for an anticipated language task or situation. This strategy includes four steps: describing the task or situation, determining its requirements, checking one's own linguistic resources, and determining additional language elements or functions necessary for the task or situation.

6. Seeking Practice Opportunities

Seeking out or creating opportunities to practice the new language in natu­ralistic situations, such as going to a second/foreign language cinema, attending a party where the language will be spoken, or joining an international social club. Consciously thinking in the new language also provides practice opportunities.

Evaluating Your Learning

In this set are two related strategies, both aiding learners in checking their language performance. One strategy involves noticing and learning from errors, and the other concerns evaluating overall progress.

1.      Self-Monitoring

Identifying errors in understanding or producing the new language, determin­ing which ones are important (those that cause serious confusion or offense), tracking the source of important errors, and trying to eliminate such errors.

2.      Self-Evaluating

Evaluating one's own progress in the new language, for instance, by check­ing to see whether one is reading faster and understanding more than 1 month or 6 months ago, or whether one is understanding a greater percentage of each conversation.

AFFECTIVE STRATEGIES

The term affective refers to emotions, attitudes, motivations, and val­ues. It is impossible to overstate the importance of the affective factors influencing language learning. Language learners can gain control over these factors through affective strategies. As shown in Figure 4.3, three main sets of affective strategies exist: Lowering Your Anxiety, Encouraging Yourself, and Taking Your Emotional Temperature (10 strategies in all). The acronym LET comes from the first letter of each one of these strategy sets—"affective strategies help language learners LET their hair down!"

"The affective domain is impossible to describe within definable lim­its," according to H. Douglas Brown [6]. It spreads out like a fine-spun net, encompassing such concepts as self-esteem, attitudes, motivation, anxiety, culture shock, inhibition, risk taking, and tolerance for ambiguity [7]. The affective side of the learner is probably one of the very biggest influences on language learning success or failure. Good language learners are often those who know how to control their emotions and attitudes about learning [8]. Negative feelings can stunt progress, even for the rare learner who fully understands all the technical aspects of how to learn a new language. On the other hand, positive emotions and attitudes car make language learning far more effective and enjoyable. Teachers car exert a tremendous influence over the emotional atmosphere of the class, room in three different ways: by changing the social structure of the class, room to give students more responsibility, by providing increased amount of naturalistic communication, and by teaching learners to use affective strategies.

Self-esteem is one of the primary affective elements. It is a self-judg­ment of worth or value, based on a feeling of efficacy—a sense of interacting effectively with one's own environment [9]. Low self-esteem can be de­tected through negative self-talk, like "Boy, am I a blockhead! 1 embarrassed myself again in front of the class." The three affective strategies related to self-encouragement help learners to counter such negativity.

The sense of efficacy that underlies self-esteem is reflected in attitudes (mental dispositions, beliefs, or opinions), which influence the learner's motivation to keep on trying to learn [10]. Attitudes are strong predictors of motivation in any area of life, and especially in language learning [I1]. Just as attitudes affect motivation, attitudes and motivation work together to influence language learning performance itself--including both global language proficiency and proficiency in specific language skills, such as listening comprehension, reading comprehension, and oral production [12]. In addition, research findings suggest that the combined attitude/motiva­tion factor strongly influences whether the learner loses or maintains language skills after language training is over [13]. Self-encouragement strategies are powerful ways to improve attitudes and, thus, motivation [14].

A certain amount of anxiety sometimes helps learners to reach their peak performance levels, but too much anxiety blocks language learning. Harmful anxiety presents itself in many guises: worry, self-doubt, frustra­tion, helplessness, insecurity, fear, and physical symptoms. Even the or­dinary language classroom can create high anxiety, because learners are frequently forced to perform in a state of ignorance and dependence in front of their peers and teacher [15]. When learners attempt to practice outside of the language classroom, anxiety may mount still further. Anxiety becomes most pronounced during culture shock, which has even been called a form of temporary mental illness [161. Anxiety-reducing strategies like laughter and deep breathing are therefore necessary. However, strat­egies directly targeted at anxiety reduction are not the only ones that help learners to calm down. Self-encouragement via positive statements can change one's feelings and attitudes and can indirectly reduce performance anxiety, including the tension which surrounds test taking [17]. In addition, the self-assessment strategies listed under Taking Your Emotional Tem­perature help learners realize when they are anxious. Listening to bodily signals is an especially helpful strategy for discovering and controlling anxiety.

The language learner who is overly anxious, either in a typical language classroom or in a more serious culture shock situation, is likely to be in­hibited and unwilling to take even moderate risks. Successful language learning necessitates overcoming inhibitions and learning to take reason­able risks, as in guessing meanings or speaking up despite the possibility of making a mistake [18]. Inhibited learners are paralyzed by actual or anticipated criticism from other people and from themselves, so they try to ensure that there are as few "chinks in their armor" as possible [19]. Self-encouragement and anxiety-reducing strategies can help learners lower their inhibitions and take appropriate risks [20].

Tolerance of ambiguity—that is, the acceptance of confusing situations—may be related to willingness to take risks (and also reduction of both inhibition and anxiety). Moderate tolerance for ambiguity, like moderate risk taking, is probably the most desirable situation. Learners who are moderately tolerant of ambiguity tend to be open-minded in deal­ing with confusing facts and events, which are part of learning a new language. In contrast, low ambiguity-tolerant learners, wanting to cate­gorize and compartmentalize too soon, have a hard time dealing with unclear facts and events. One study [21] discovered that tolerance for ambiguity was one of the two factors that predicted success in foreign language learning. Other studies have found that language learners who are tolerant of ambiguity are more successful in certain language tasks [22] and may use somewhat more effective learning strategies than learners who are less tolerant of ambiguity and who need to seek rapid closure [23]. Again, self-encouragement and anxiety-reducing strategies help learners cope with ambiguity in language learning.

Few studies have examined the frequency of use of affective strategies, but those which have done so reveal that these strategies are woefully underused—reported by about 1 in every 20 language learners [24]. This situation is distressing, given the power of affective strategies. These strat­egies are useful for the vast majority of language learners who have or­dinary hang-ups and difficulties. However, these strategies are not intended as a substitute for psychotherapy or a mechanism for solving deep psy­chological problems, nor can they single-handedly change general traits, such as low global self-esteem [25]. With this in mind, consider the fol­lowing affective strategies and their definitions.

Lowering Your Anxiety

Three anxiety-reducing strategies are listed here. Each has a physical component and a mental component.

1.  Using Progressive Relaxation, Deep Breathing, or Meditation

Using the technique of alternately tensing and relaxing all of the major muscle groups in the body, as well as the muscles in the neck and face, in order to relax; or the technique of breathing deeply from the diaphragm; or the technique of meditating by focusing on a mental image or sound.

2.  Using Music

Listening to soothing music, such as a classical concert, as a way to relax.

3.  Using Laughter

Using laughter to relax by watching a funny movie, reading a humorous book, listening to jokes, and so on.

Encouraging Yourself

This set of three strategies is often forgotten by language learners, especially those who expect encouragement mainly from other people and do not realize they can provide their own. However, the most potent encouragement—and the only available encouragement in many inde­pendent language learning situations—may come from inside the learner. Self-encouragement includes saying supportive things, prodding oneself to take risks wisely, and providing rewards.

1.      Making Positive Statements

Saying or writing positive statements to oneself in order to feel more con­fident in learning the new language.

2.      Taking Risks Wisely

Pushing oneself to take risks in a language learning situation, even though there is a chance of making a mistake or looking foolish. Risks must be tempered with good judgment.

3.      Rewarding Yourself

Giving oneself a valuable reward for a particularly good performance in the new language.

Taking Your Emotional Temperature

The four strategies in this set help learners to assess their feelings, motivations, and attitudes and, in many cases, to relate them to language tasks. Unless learners know how they are feeling and why they are feeling that way, they are less able to control their affective side. The strategies in this set are particularly helpful for discerning negative at­titudes and emotions that impede language learning progress.

1.      Listening to Your Body

Paying attention to signals given by the body. These signals may be negative, reflecting stress, tension, worry, fear, and anger; or they may be positive, indicating happiness, interest, calmness, and pleasure.

2.      Using a Checklist

Using a checklist to discover feelings, attitudes, and motivations concerning language learning in general, as well as concerning specific language tasks.

3.         Writing a Language Learning Diary

Writing a diary or journal to keep track of events and feelings in the process of learning a new language.

4.      Discussing Your Feelings with Someone Else

Talking with another person (teacher, friend, relative) to discover and ex­press feelings about language learning.

SOCIAL STRATEGIES

Language is a form of social behavior; it is communication, and com­munication occurs between and among people. Learning a language thus involves other people, and appropriate social strategies are very important in this process. Three sets of social strategies, each set comprising two specific strategies (see Figure 4.4), are included here: Asking Questions, Cooperating with Others, and Empathizing with Others. These can be remembered by using their acronym, ACE: "ACE language learners use social strategies?"

One of the most basic social interactions is asking questions, an action from which learners gain great benefit. Asking questions helps learners get closer to the intended meaning and thus aids their understanding. It also helps learners encourage their conversation partners to provide larger quantities of "input" in the target language and indicates interest and involvement. Moreover, the conversation partner's response to the learn­er's question indicates whether the question itself was understood, thus providing indirect feedback about the learner's production skills. The con­tent of questions is important, of course. One social strategy concerns asking questions for clarification (when something is riot understood) or verification (when the learner wants to check whether something is correct). A related social strategy involves asking for correction, which is especially useful in the classroom. The classroom setting provides much more overt correction than do natural, informal social settings.

In addition to asking questions, cooperating in general—with peers and with more proficient users of the target language—is imperative for language learners. Cooperation implies the absence of competition and the presence of group spirit. It involves a cooperative task structure or a co­operative reward structure [26], either of which can encourage "positive interdependence" and mutual support [27]. Many studies outside of the language learning field have strongly demonstrated the utility of cooper­ative learning strategies [28]. Cooperative learning consistently shows the following significant effects: higher self-esteem; increased confidence and enjoyment; greater and more rapid achievement; more respect for the teacher, the school, and the subject; use of higher-level cognitive strategies; de­creased prejudice; and increased altruism and mutual concern [29]. In the area of language learning, cooperative strategies have accrued the same benefits, as well as the following additional advantages: better student and teacher satisfaction, stronger language learning motivation, more language practice opportunities, more feedback about language errors, and greater use of different language functions [30].

However, cooperative strategies might not be second nature to all language learners. Research shows that on their own, with no special training or encouragement, language learners do not typically report a natural preference for cooperative strategies [31]. Competition is strongly reinforced by the educational establishment, with schools often pitting students against each other in competition for approval, attention, and grades in all subject areas, including language learning [32]. Although competition might sometimes result in a positive desire to improve and do better than other people, more often it results in debilitating anxiety, in­adequacy, guilt, hostility, withdrawal, fear of failure, and desire for ap­proval [33]. To promote cooperative language learning strategies, either inside or outside the classroom, it might be necessary to help learners confront—and possibly modify—their culturally defined attitudes toward cooperation and competition.

Empathy is the ability to "put yourself in someone else's shoes" in order to better understand that person's perspective. Empathy is essential to successful communication in any language; it is especially necessary, although sometimes difficult to achieve, in learning another language. Peo­ple differ in their natural ability to feel and demonstrate empathy. However, social strategies can help all learners increase their ability to emphathize by developing cultural understanding and becoming aware of others' thoughts and feelings. Following is a list of social strategies and their definitions.

Asking Questions

This set of strategies involves asking someone, possibly a teacher or native speaker or even a more proficient fellow learner, for clarifi­cation, verification, or correction.

1.      Asking for Clarification or Verification

Asking the speaker to repeat, paraphrase, explain, slow down, or give examples; asking if a specific utterance is correct or if a rule fits a particular case;

paraphrasing or repeating to get feedback on whether something is correct.

2.      Asking for Correction

Asking someone for correction in a conversation. This strategy most often occurs in conversation but may also be applied to writing.

Cooperating with Others

This set of two strategies involves interacting with one or more people to improve language skills. These strategies are the basis of co­operative language learning, which not only increases learners language performance but also enhances self-worth and social acceptance.

1.      Cooperating with Peers

Working with other language learners to improve language skills. This strat­egy can involve a regular Learning partner or a temporary pair or small group. This strategy frequently involves controlling impulses toward competitiveness and rivalry.

2.      Cooperating with Proficient Users of the New Language

Working with native speakers or other proficient users of the new language, usually outside of the language classroom. This strategy involves par­ticular attention to the conversational roles each person takes.

Empathizing with Others

Empathy can be developed more easily when language learners use these two strategies.

1.           Developing Cultural Understanding

Trying to empathize with another person through learning about the culture, and trying to understand the other person's relation to that culture.

2.          Becoming Aware of Others' Thoughts and Feelings

Observing the behaviors of others as a possible expression of their thoughts and feelings; and when appropriate, asking about thoughts and feelings of others.

SUMMARY

This chapter described the significance of three groups of indirect strategies: metacognitive, affective, and social. For each of these groups, specific strategies were identified and defined. Indirect strategies are an essential counterpart to direct strategies, which were described in Chapters 2 and 3.

ACTIVITIES FOR READERS

Activity 4.1. Consider a Difficult Subject

Although you might be a teacher, consider your previous experience as a student. This will help you understand what students face as they cope with a new subject.

1.     Write down three examples of times when a new subject seemed overwhelming to you owing to its novelty, complexity, difficulty, or scope.

2.     Then choose the single most interesting example and discuss what made that subject so difficult to you.

3.     Now list your affective (emotional and attitudinal) responses to that subject and explain what strategies you used to cope with those responses.

4.     Consider your meta cognitive control over the subject. For instance, describe how you tried to focus your efforts and organize your environment, schedule, and materials. Explain what you did about setting goals and finding practice opportunities. Cite any efforts to evaluate your own progress.

Activity 4.2. Experiment with Metacognitive and Affective Strategies

Metacognitive and affective strategies are useful for any area of learn­ing or work. This week try out at least one metacognitive strategy and one affective strategy you do not ordinarily use. Write down the effects of your experiment and discuss them with other people. What did you do that was most effective? What did you do that was least effective?

Activity 4.3. Ask Questions

Consider your questioning style by trying the following:

1.   When you are talking with native speakers of a language that is not your own, observe how often you ask questions for clarification, verification, or correction.

2.   Do you tend to use questioning techniques more often with some people than with others? Why or why not?

3.   Observe your own behavior in your native language. Do you ask questions for clarification, verification, or correction in your own native language? If so, under what circumstances, and with whom? Do you use questioning in the same way in your native language as in the target language?

Activity 4.4. Judge Your Empathy

How much empathy do you have for others? Do you think you identify well with others or not? How do you feel this influences your ability to learn languages? To get along with other people? Give specific examples to back up your statements. How can the strategies listed under Empath­izing with Others help you increase your empathy? How can you help others, especially your students, strengthen their empathy?

Activity 4.5. Weigh Competitiveness and Cooperation

In a small group or by yourself, answer the following questions:

1.   Do you agree with the statements in this chapter about the effects of competitiveness and cooperation in language learning? Why or why not?

2.   Have you ever felt competitive in a language learning experience? If yes, what were the circumstances? What aspects of the situation, or of yourself, might have encouraged you to feel competitive? Is this a typical learning mode for you?

3.   In what ways have you exercised cooperation in language learning? Was this in a classroom setting or in a naturalistic language situa­tion? What differences in types of cooperation exist between these two kinds of environments?

EXERCISES TO USE WITH YOUR STUDENTS Exercise

4.1. Listen to Self-Talk

Ask your students how often they say positive things to themselves about language learning. Ask them to list all the positive things they say and to explain how these statements make them feel about themselves and about continuing their language learning.

Now request that your students list all the negative things they say to themselves, and ask how these negative statements affect their self-esteem as language learners

Exercise 4.2. Let Students Consider Cooperation and Competition

Run a cooperative learning activity—one which has either a cooper­ative task or a cooperative reward or both, and which therefore encourages cooperative learning strategies. Afterwards, discuss with your students how they felt about that activity and about learning cooperatively in gen­eral. Ask them how they have reacted to cooperative learning experiences in other classes, and encourage them to give specific examples.

Now ask students about their feelings of competition with their peers, both in the language class and in other classes. Find out whether they are more comfortable with competition than with cooperation. Discuss with your students what they would need to increase their use of cooperative strategies in the language class.

Exercise 4.3. Try Out Indirect Strategies

In order to stimulate greater use of a range of indirect strategies, ask students to do any or all of the following activities listed above for readers of this book: Activities 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, or 4.4. Assess results. You might need to modify some of the directions slightly for use with students. Make sure there is time to discuss the results.